It is estimated that 1,660,290 men and women (854,790 men and 805,500 women) were diagnosed with and 580,350 men and women died of cancer of all sites in 2013. From 2006-2010, the median age at diagnosis for cancer of all sites was 66 years of age. The age-adjusted incidence rate was 463.0 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on cases diagnosed in 2006-2010 from 18 SEER geographic areas (N.B. SEER=Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, NCI). From 2006-2010, the median age at death for cancer of all sites was 72 years of age. The age-adjusted death rate was 176.4 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on patients who died in 2006-2010 in the US. The overall 5-year relative survival for 2003-2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 65.8%.
Leukemias are cancers that start in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow and causes abnormally large numbers of blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream. The major leukemias are comprised of Acute Lymphoblastic (ALL), Acute Myeloid (AML), Chronic Lymphocytic (CLL), Chronic Myelogenous (CML), and Hairy Cell (CLL) Leukemia.
For these leukemias as a group, it is estimated that 48,610 men and women (27,880 men and 20,730 women) will be diagnosed with and 23,720 men and women will die of leukemia in 2013. From 2006-2010, the median age at diagnosis for leukemia was 66 years of age. The age-adjusted incidence rate was 12.8 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on cases diagnosed in 2006-2010 from 18 SEER geographic areas. From 2006-2010, the median age at death for leukemia was 75 years of age. The age-adjusted death rate was 7.1 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on patients who died in 2006-2010 in the US. The overall 5-year relative survival for 2003-2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 56.0%.
CLL is the second most common type of leukemia in adults and it usually gets worse slowly. It often occurs during or after middle age and it rarely occurs in children. Patients with early-stage CLL are not treated with chemotherapy until they become symptomatic or display evidence of rapid progression of disease. Early initiation of chemotherapy has failed to show benefit in CLL and may even increase mortality. When chemotherapy is initiated, the nucleoside analogue fludarabine is the most commonly used first-line therapy in CLL. Combination regimens have shown improved response rates in several clinical trials and include the following: Fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab (FCR); Pentostatin, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab (PCR); Fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and mitoxantrone (FCM); Cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone (CVP); Cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone (CHOP). It is estimated that 15,680 men and women (9,720 men and 5,960 women) will be diagnosed with and 4,580 men and women will die of chronic lymphocytic leukemia in 2013. From 2006-2010, the median age at diagnosis for chronic lymphocytic leukemia was 71 years of age. The age-adjusted incidence rate was 4.3 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on cases diagnosed in 2006-2010 from 18 SEER geographic areas. From 2006-2010, the median age at death for chronic lymphocytic leukemia was 79 years of age. The age-adjusted death rate was 1.4 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on patients who died in 2006-2010 in the US. The overall 5-year relative survival for 2003-2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 79.2%.
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is the most common type of acute leukemia among adults. Current treatment of AML should be sufficiently aggressive to achieve complete remission (CR) because partial remission offers no substantial survival benefit. Remission rates in adult AML are inversely related to age, with an expected remission rate of more than 65% for those younger than 60 years. Data suggest that once attained, duration of remission may be shorter in older patients. Patients that express the progenitor cell antigen CD34 and/or the P-glycoprotein (MDR1 gene product) have an inferior outcome. Cytogenetic analysis provides some of the strongest prognostic information available, predicting outcome of both remission induction and post remission therapy. Cytogenetic abnormalities that indicate a good prognosis include t(8; 21), inv(16) or t(16;16), and t(15;17). Normal cytogenetics portends average-risk AML. Patients with AML that is characterized by deletions of the long arms or monosomies of chromosomes 5 or 7; by translocations or inversions of chromosome 3, t(6; 9), t(9; 22); or by abnormalities of chromosome 11q23 have particularly poor prognoses with chemotherapy. It is estimated that 14,590 men and women (7,820 men and 6,770 women) will be diagnosed with and 10,370 men and women will die of acute myeloid leukemia in 2013. From 2006-2010, the median age at diagnosis for acute myeloid leukemia was 67 years of age. The age-adjusted incidence rate was 3.7 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on cases diagnosed in 2006-2010 from 18 SEER geographic areas. From 2006-2010, the median age at death for acute myeloid leukemia was 72 years of age. The age-adjusted death rate was 2.8 per 100,000 men and women per year. These rates are based on patients who died in 2006-2010 in the US. The overall 5-year relative survival for 2003-2009 from 18 SEER geographic areas was 24.2%. Note, all general cancer information was obtained from the NCI website (www.cancer.gov) and all statistics are based on SEER incidence and NCHS mortality statistics found within: Howlader N., et. al., SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2010, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, Md., http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2010/, based on November 2012 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, 2013.
Acute lymphblastic leukemia (“ALL”) represents a group of B/T-precursor-stage lymphoid cell malignancies arising from genetic alterations that block lymphoid differentiation and drive aberrant cell proliferation and survival. Remarkable strides have been made in the past several decades in treating childhood ALL, with five (5) year survival rates now approaching 90%. However up to 20% of children will be refractory to treatment or relapse following treatment and the event free survival rate for these patients remains poor. It also remains challenging to treat adult patients with ALL, with a high relapse rate even after significant progress in modern chemotherapy. In recent decades rapid improvements in the results of treatment of ALL have been achieved, which is mainly based on intensification and optimization of chemotherapy, risk-adapted use of stem-cell transplantation, as well as individualized and targeted therapy including monoclonal antibodies. Using next-generation sequencing, additional mutations affecting normal lymphopoiesis and the significance of cooperating mutations, as well as epigenetic alterations are being evaluated. The data obtained in this way will aid in the evaluation of prognosis in the individual patient but, importantly, also in incorporating targeted therapy appropriate for the mutational abnormality.
Further, the therapeutic utility of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) (G. Kohler and C. Milstein, Nature 256:495-497 (1975)) is being realized. Monoclonal antibodies have now been approved as therapies in transplantation, cancer, infectious disease, cardiovascular disease and inflammation. Different isotypes have different effector functions. Such differences in function are reflected in distinct 3-dimensional structures for the various immunoglobulin isotypes (P. M. Alzari et al., Annual Rev. Immunol., 6:555-580 (1988)).
Because mice are convenient for immunization and recognize most human antigens as foreign, mAbs against human targets with therapeutic potential have typically been of murine origin. However, murine mAbs have inherent disadvantages as human therapeutics. They require more frequent dosing as mAbs have a shorter circulating half-life in humans than human antibodies. More critically, the repeated administration of murine antibodies to the human immune system causes the human immune system to respond by recognizing the mouse protein as a foreign and generating a human anti-mouse antibody (HAMA) response. Such a HAMA response may result in allergic reaction and the rapid clearing of the murine antibody from the system thereby rendering the treatment by murine antibody useless. To avoid such affects, attempts to create human immune systems within mice have been attempted.
Initial attempts hoped to create transgenic mice capable of responding to antigens with antibodies having human sequences (See Bruggemann et al., Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6709-6713 (1989)), but were limited by the amount of DNA that could be stably maintained by available cloning vehicles. The use of yeast artificial chromosome (YAC) cloning vectors led the way to introducing large germline fragments of human Ig locus into transgenic mammals. Essentially a majority of the human V, D, and J region genes arranged with the same spacing found in the human genome and the human constant regions were introduced into mice using YACs. One such transgenic mouse strain is known as XenoMouse® mice and is commercially available from Amgen Fremont, Inc. (Fremont Calif.), formerly Abgenix, Inc.
Additionally, antibodies can be prepared using VelocImmune transgenic mice into which genomic sequences bearing endogenous mouse variable segments at the immunoglobulin heavy chain (VH, DH, and JH segments) and/or kappa light chain (VK and JK) loci have been replaced, in whole or in part, with human genomic sequences bearing unrearranged germline variable segments of the human immunoglobulin heavy chain (VH, DH, and JH) and/or kappa light chain (VK and JK) loci (Regeneron, Tarrytown, N.Y.). See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,586,251, 6,596,541, 7,105,348, 6,528,313, 6,638,768, and 6,528,314.